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\begin{document}

\title{Professor Norm Matloff's Beginner's Guide to Installing and
Using Linux
\thanks{The information contained here is accurate, to the author's
knowledge.  However, no guarantee is made in this regard.}
}

\author{
Norm Matloff \\
Department of Computer Science \\
University of California at Davis \\
matloff@cs.ucdavis.edu \\ 
\copyright{1999-2013} }
\date{January 4, 2013} 

\maketitle

\tableofcontents{}

\newpage

\section{Background Needed}

I have tailored the material here to beginners. No special
sophistication in computers is needed. Any typical Microsoft Windows
user should be able to understand the instructions here and install
Linux in less than an hour's time. (Do not be intimidated by the length
of this document; you probably will not have to use most of it.)

Don't worry about the length of this document.  You'll probably only
need a small part of it.

For some background on the history and significance of the Linux
operating system, go to Appendix \ref{whatislinux}

\section{Install to Where?}

I recommend that you install Linux on your hard drive, so that you will
{\it dual-boot} either your old OS (I'll assume Windows from now on) or
Linux.  After installation, each time you boot up, you will be given a
choice of whether to boot Windows or Linux.

Another alternative is to install Linux on a USB key (memory stick) or
external hard drive.

Still another choice is to run Linux as a virtual machine.  This is not
covered in this document, but if you are a UCD student, see
\url{http://csifdocs.cs.ucdavis.edu/documentation/archives/csif-fedora-on-a-virtual-machine}
for the easy steps.

By the way, if you have a Mac, you may have the capabilities you need
without Linux, since both the Mac OS and Linux are Unix systems.

\section{Which Linux Distribution Is Best?}

Linux comes in various {\it distributions}, called {\it distros} by
Linux afficionados---but they are all Linux in terms of functionality.
Some of the most popular are Ubuntu, Red Hat, Fedora, Linux Mint, SuSE,
MEPIS, PCLinuxOS and so on.

Remember, there are tons of good distros out there.  Any of the above
would be fine, as would many others, but here is my short answer:  {\bf
\large Use Ubuntu} (or one of the many Ubuntu derivatives, such as Linux
Mint).  It is arguably one of the most user-friendly of the distros, and
it has a large user community you can access in the Ubuntu forum on the
Web, probably the most active one out there.  

I now use Ubuntu myself on my home computers, as well as on my office
computer, after years of using various other distros.

If you have an old machine, especially one with limited memory (i.e.
RAM), you may wish to give Puppy Linux or Damn Small Linux a try.  I
installed them (one at a time) on an old 1998 laptop with only 64M of
memory!  And they take as little as 50M of disk space.  

\section{Installation}
\label{install}

Here is the short way to install Linux on your hard drive,
dual-booting with Windows. 

\subsection{The Short Answer}
\label{shortanswer}

Here you will install the Ubuntu distro, using UNetbootin as your
installation tool.\footnote{Unfortunately, UNetbootin does not produce
Mac-bootable USB keys.}

For simplicity, I'll assume you wish to install Linux to your laptop.

\begin{itemize}

\item Download UNetbootin from its home page
\url{http://unetbootin.sourceforge.net/} to your hard drive.  (For
further informat on UNetbootin, see
\url{http://sourceforge.net/apps/trac/unetbootin/wiki/guide}.

\item Insert a USB key (memory stick).  It needs to have FAT32 format.
It probably came that way, but if not then check the Web for how to fix
that using your OS.

\item Run UNetbootin.

\item Click Select Distribution, and choose Ubuntu.  Then choose the
latest Live version in the window to the right.

\item For Type, choose USB Drive, and for Drive, choose the drive in
which your USB key is inserted.  

\item Click OK.

\item After the installation to your USB key finishes, choose Exit.

\item Leaving your key in the drive, restart your laptop.

\item Select the choice labeled something like Try Ubuntu.

\item Once Ubuntu boots up, try to use the WiFi:  Click on the proper
icon at the top right of the screen, and select your wireless network.
If none appears, then for now, connect your machine to an Ethernet jack,
say at a public library or copy shop.

\item Follow directions.  If asked whether you want third-party software
to be installed, say yes.

\item Reboot (remove the USB key when the screen goes dark).

\item If WiFi didn't work above, it should work now.  You may have to
click a pop-up window that asks if you want to use the proprietary
drivers.

\end{itemize}

During the installation process, there may be some mention of disk
partitions.  You should not have to take action, but if you wish to know
about partitions (very useful!), see Appendix \ref{whatispart}.

\subsection{Installing Linux to a USB Key or External Hard Drive}
\label{usb}

You can install Linux to a USB key or external hard drive, and boot up
Linux from there whenever you want to use Linux.  (This is not the same
as the USB key created from UNetbootin, which is only temporary.)

\subsubsection{Installation Method I (for Slax Linux)}

Slax is a nice, colorful and small version of Linux, at  
\url{http://www.slax.org}.  Click on ``Get Slax'' to download, and on
``Read Manuals'' to see how to install onto a USB key or external hard
drive.  It is extremely easy!

In short:

\begin{itemize}

\item Download the Slax {\bf .tar} package.

\item Go to the directory (or folder, in Windows) for your USB key.

\item Unpack the {\bf .tar} file from that directory.

\item Go to the {\bf boot} subdirectory, and run either {\bf
bootinst.sh} (from Linux) or {\bf bootinst.bat} (from Windows).  In the
Linux case, you may need to precede your command by {\bf sudo}.

\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Other Methods}

You can use UNetbootin (Section \ref{shortanswer}), but you'll need to
make your USB installation {\bf persistent}; see
\url{http://sourceforge.net/apps/trac/unetbootin/wiki/guide}.

There are methods to construct your USB installation ``by hand'' from an
ISO file.  This is complicated, and will not be pursued here.

% 
% Here are the steps, using a Linux machine as your tool:  
% 
% \begin{itemize}
% 
% \item Download a Linux ISO file, say from the Ubuntu home page
% 
% \item Say your ISO file is {\bf x.iso}, and your USB key or external
% drive (I'll just say ``external device'' for either from now on) is at
% {\bf /dev/sdg1}.  (You may need to run as root, say via {\bf sudo}, for
% some of these steps.)
% 
% \item Create a single, primary ext2 partition on the external device, say
% using GParted.  
% 
% \item Open a terminal window, and type
% 
% \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% % mkdir /mykey
% % mount /dev/sdb1 /mykey
% % mkdir /myisodir
% % mount -o loop x.iso /myisodir
% % cp -r /myisodir/* /mykey
% % grub-install --root-directory=/mykey --no-floppy /dev/sdb1
% \end{Verbatim}
% 
% The directories {\bf mykey} and {\bf myisodir} can be on any device, as
% they are just temporary.
% 
% The first mount maps whatever is, or will be, in the {\bf mykey}
% directory to the external device.  That way the {\bf cp} does copy the
% ISO files to that device.  
% 
% The second mount sets up a file system out of the ISO file, so that the
% files in the ISO file may be copied.
% 
% \item We also install the GRUB bootloader to the device.  You need to
% configure GRUB, by editing its {\bf menu.lst} file, which should in the
% above context be in {\bf /mykey/boot/grub/menu.lst}.  The following
% contents will probably be enough, though may be distro-dependent:
% 
% \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% title yourdistronamegoeshere
% kernel /boot/vmlinuz
% initrd /boot/initrd.gz
% \end{Verbatim}
% 
% \item Don't forget to unmount {\bf mykey} and {\bf myisodir} when you're
% done, using {\bf umount}.
% 
% \end{itemize}

% Here's how to install SLAX, an especially compact distro based on
% Slackware: 
% 
% \begin{itemize}
% 
% \item Download SLAX from \url{www.slax.org}, in the USB-appropriate
% form.
% 
% \item Unpack it to your USB key, and go to the directory named {\bf
% boot}.  There run either {\bf bootinst.sh} or {\bf bootinst.bat},
% depending on whether you are currently running Linux or Windows.
% 
% \end{itemize}
% 
% \subsubsection{Boot Devices}
% 
% Note that you need your machine to try to boot from the USB key before
% trying to boot from the hard drive.  At the very beginning of bootup,
% hit Esc, F1, F2 or F12 (depends on your machine), to stop the process
% and allow yourself to be queried as to which device you wish to boot
% from.

\section{Post-Installation Configuration}

This section describes some further steps I recommend taking after your
installation is finished. 

% \subsection{Help in Hardware Configuration}
% 
% Having trouble getting some hardware component to work under Linux?
% I'll have some tips on that below, but keep in mind that a great source
% is the Web.  Plug something like ``Linux install XXXX,'' where XXXX is
% the type of machine you own) into Google.  Actually, it would be better
% to specify your distro, e.g. ``Ubuntu install XXXX.'' You'll find a
% number of reports of experiences by other people with your
% machine/distro.  

\subsection{Configuring Your Search Path (``Why can't I run my a.out?'')}

Most Linux distros do not include your current directory, `.',
in the PATH variable. Thus if for example you compile a program and then
type

\begin{Verbatim}
a.out
\end{Verbatim}

the shell may tell you that {\bf a.out} is not found. You are expected
to explicitly specify the current directory:

\begin{Verbatim}
./a.out
\end{Verbatim}

If you consider this a problem, as I do, to remedy it in the case of the
BASH shell (the default shell for most distros), edit the file {\bf
~/.bash\_profile} In the line which sets PATH, append ``:.'' (a colon
and a dot) at the end of the line, with no intervening spaces.  Then log
out and log in again, or do

\begin{Verbatim}
source ~/.bash_profile
\end{Verbatim}

\subsection{Configuring a Printer}

Your Linux distribution should have some program to help you configure
your printer if something went wrong during installation.  For example,
if you are running the GNOME GUI, select System $|$ Administration $|$
Printing.

It's now easy to connect to a remote printer elsewhere on your network
(even if it is on a Windows machine), using Samba.

\subsection{Switching from GNOME/Ubuntu Unity}

I personally don't like the Unity window manager in GNOME.  Many others
feel the same way.  So, Ubuntu gives us other choices.  To set them up,
do

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install gnome-shell
\end{Verbatim}

At your next start, the login screen will show a symbol next to choices
of login names; choose Gnome Classic (No Effects) or whatever you like;
experiment to find one that suits you.

\subsection{Configuring KDE/GNOME for Convenient Window Operations}
\label{config}

\subsubsection{Autoraise Etc.}

You should find that windowing operations are generally easier in Linux
systems than in Windows, in the sense of requiring fewer mouse clicks,
if you set things up that way.  Personally, I find it annoying in
Windows that, when I switch from one window to another, I need to click
on that second window.  In most Linux windowing systems, I can arrange
things so that all I have to do is simply move the mouse to the second
window, without clicking on it.  The term for this is {\it focus follows
mouse}, and we can configure most Linux windowing systems to do this.

Also when I move from one window to another, I want the second one to
``come out of hiding'' and be fully exposed on the screen.  This is
called {\it autoraise}, and can be configured too.

You can arrange this configuration in less than one minute's time.
Again, the exact configuration steps will vary from GNOME to KDE, and
from one version to another within those systems, so I can't give you
the general steps here but here is how it works on GNOME in Ubuntu 12.10
or later:

Open a terminal window (ctrl-alt-t), and type

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo gsettings set org.gnome.desktop.wm.preferences auto-raise true
sudo gsettings set org.gnome.desktop.wm.preferences focus-mode 'mouse'
\end{Verbatim}

Then log out and back in.  You only need do this once.

You get check these settings using {\bf get} instead of {\bf set}, or
use {\bf reset} to revert to the original values ({\bf false} and
'click'), e.g.

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo gsettings reset org.gnome.desktop.wm.preferences auto-raise 
\end{Verbatim}

% \subsubsection{Saving Window Places Between Sessions}
% 
% If upon bootup you'd like to have the same windows in the same places 
% as in your last session, you can arrange this to occur automatically in
% GNOME by System $|$ Preferences $|$  Sessions $|$ Session Options and
% then checking the proper box.

\section{Some Points on Linux Usage}

\subsubsection{Ubuntu Root Operations}
\label{sudo}

Ubuntu works like any other Linux distro, except for one important
point:  Ubuntu does not have a root user account in the classic Unix
sense.  Instead, whenever executing a command which requires root
privileges, one precedes the command by the term {\bf sudo} (``superuser
do'').  One is then prompted for a password, which is the password for
the first user account created at the time of installation.

If you have a lot of root-type work to do in a session, type

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
$ sudo -s
\end{Verbatim}

to create a new superuser shell, and do your work there.

\subsection{More on Shells/Terminal Windows}
\label{shells}

In Microsoft Windows, most work done by most users is through a
Graphical User Interface (GUI), rather than in a command window (Start
$|$ Run $|$ cmd).  In Linux, a lot of work is done via GUIs but also it
is frequently handier to use a command window, called a {\it terminal}
window.  You should always keep two or three terminal windows on your
screen for various tasks that might arise.  

You can start a terminal window in GNOME by typing ctrl-alt-t.

When you type commands in a terminal window, the program which reads and
acts on those commands is called a {\it shell}.  (Thus a terminal window
is sometimes called a ``shell window.'')

I have an introduction to Unix shells, 
at \url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/UnixAndC/Unix/ShellIntro.html}
and \url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/UnixAndC/Unix/CShellII.html}.
These are based on the T C-shell, {\bf tcsh}, but at least in the case
of the first tutorials, most of the material also applies to the more
popular {\bf bash} shell.

On the other hand, {\bf bash} is more popular, so you 

\subsection{Cut-and-Paste Window Operations}

To do a cut-and-paste operations, hold down the left mouse button and
drag it to highlight the text you wish to copy.  Then go to the place
you wish to copy that text, and simultaneously push both the left and
right buttons.  Generally, more things are cut-and-pastable in Linux
than Windows, so this is a big convenience.

\subsection{Mounting Other Peripheral Devices}

This section explains how to use DVDs, USB devices and so on under
Linux.  You may wish to review Section \ref{whatispart} before
continuing.

\subsubsection{Mount Points}

Each I/O device that contains a file system must be {\it mounted}, i.e.
associated with some directory.  That directory is called a {\it mount
point}.  The files then appear in that directory.

These days most Linux distributions have a designated directory for
mount points for DVD/CD-ROMs, USB devices, floppy disks, etc.  This will
vary from one distribution to another, but typical directory names are
{\bf /mnt}, {\bf /media} etc.

You can check what is currently mounted by running the {\bf df} command
from a shell window (another good Linux learning experience).  The mount
points are listed along with the {\bf /dev} files.  Also, to list the
{\bf /dev} files for all your operating drives including USB flash
drives and including drives not mounted, type {\bf sudo fdisk
-l}.\footnote{This might not work in some cases.  If {\bf fdisk} doesn't
recognize your device, try viewing the file {\bf /proc/partitions}.
Your device may appear there, say as {\bf sdb1}.  Then run {\bf mount}
as shown below, on {\bf /dev/sdb1}.}  For more detailed information,
such as file system types, just run {\bf mount} without any arguments.

Your machine's internal hard drives, and possibly other devices, will be
mounted automatically at boot time.  This is controlled by the entries
in the file {\bf /etc/fstab}.  The details are an advanced topic, but
even without understanding everything, you might find it worthwhile to
take a quick look at that file.  Here is a line from the file on my
office machine,

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
/dev/sda3       /usr/home               ext3    defaults        0 2
\end{Verbatim}

Here {\bf /dev/sda3} is the third partition ('3') on my first SATA hard
drive (`a').  The entry says that this partition has an {\bf ext3} type
filesystem in it, and is to be mounted at the directory {\bf /usr/home}.
The remaining entries concern things such as backup and file system checks.

When you attach a device to your machine {\it after} bootup, your system
will probably recognize it immediately, and maybe pop up a window
showing the device's contents.  If you have trouble, you can use the
Unix {\bf mount} command.  This is an advanced command, but just to give
you an idea, a typical usage would be

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
mount -t iso9660 /dev/hdc /mnt/yyy
\end{Verbatim}

This tells Linux that the I/O device corresponding to {\bf /dev/hdc},
our CD-ROM, should be mounted at the directory {\bf /mnt/yyy}.
If that directory doesn't exist, you must create it first, using {\bf
mkdir}.  The field {\bf -t iso9660} says that the file system type is
ISO9660.  This is standard for CD-ROMs, and you can probably omit it.

Use {\bf umount} to unmount.  It's not safe to remove a USB device
without running this first.

% \subsubsection{Reading Your DVD/CD-ROM Floppy Drive from Linux}
% \label{dvd}
% 
% The files are available under the mount point, as explained above.
% If they contain music or video, you of course will need a program to
% access them; see Section \ref{mplayer}.
% 
% \subsubsection{CD/DVD Burning}
% 
% You can use the shell-based {\bf cdrecord} and {\bf dvdrecord} programs,
% but it is much easier to use one of the GUI-based programs.  I use {\bf
% gnomebaker} (or sometimes Nautilus, the built-in Linux file manager).
% 
% If you do not have that program, you can download it from the Web.
% Under Ubuntu, for instance, simply type
% 
% \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% sudo apt-get install gnomebaker
% \end{Verbatim}
% 
% Run the program by typing
% 
% \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% gnomebaker
% \end{Verbatim}
% 
% in a shell window.  The GUI will come up.  
% 
% In the bottom right-hand corner, set the size of the CD/DVD (a typical
% DVD has capacity 4.7G), then click Create Data Disk.
% 
% Then go to the Filesystem section in the upper-right portion of the
% window, and choose your directory.  Then for each file you want to burn,
% click and drag it from the File section at the upper-right to the Data
% Disk (or Audio Disk) section at the bottom of the window.  If you wish
% to copy an entire directory, just drag the directory name.
% 
% To burn an ISO image, select Actions $|$ Burn CD/DVD Image, then 
% select the {\bf .iso} file, and burn.
% 
% % I prefer to use the plain {\bf cdrecord} command, included with most
% % Linux distributions.
% % 
% % To burn a data CD, you'll need it to be in ISO form.  In some cases,
% % e.g. where you download material from the Web which you want to burn
% % into a CD, you may already have an ISO file, i.e. with {\bf .iso}
% % suffix in its name.  
% % 
% % If not, then first put all your data in some directory, say {\bf x}.
% % Then make an ISO file from it, say named {\bf y.iso}:
% % 
% % \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% % mkisofs -r -o y.iso x
% % \end{Verbatim}
% % 
% % Put a blank CD in the tray.  (Do NOT mount it, as it has no file system
% % to mount.) Then log in as root. 
% % 
% % Your CD device number might not be 0,0 (or 0,0,0; the first 0 may be
% % omitted in certain cases).  Type
% % 
% % \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% % cdrecord -scanbus
% % \end{Verbatim}
% % 
% % to find out.
% % 
% % Now burn the file:
% % 
% % \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% % cdrecord -eject -v -isosize speed=2 dev=0,0 y.iso
% % \end{Verbatim}
% % 
% % A speed of 2 is very conservative, maximizing the chance that the burn
% % has no errors.  If you wish, try omitting the {\tt speed} field in your
% % command, and {\bf cdrecord} may choose a higher speed.
% % 
% % A similar {\bf dvdrecord} command exists for burning DVDs.

\subsubsection{Using USB Devices}

USB drives, including memory sticks, should have their filesystems
mounted automatically when you attach them.  Use the {\bf df} command to
check where they've been mounted (it could be in the directory {\bf
/mnt/} {\bf /media} etc.). 

USB mice should become automatically usable when you attach them.

\section{Linux Applications Software}

\subsection{GUI Vs. Text-Based}

Most people prefer to use GUI-based applications.  If you are one of
them, rest assured that there are tons of them available for Linux.

I do wish to mention, though, that many ``super hard core'' Linux users
prefer to use text-based applications, rather than GUI ones.  For
instance, I and many others like the {\bf mutt} e-mail utility (Section
\ref{email}), which is text-based.  Here's why, at least in my view:

\begin{itemize}

\item I often access my Linux machine remotely, while
traveling.\footnote{Which is in fact exactly the case as I write this
paragraph.}  I might be at a university library, for instance, or at the
business center in a hotel, and be ``stuck'' with a Windows machine, and
logging in to my Linux machine via an SSH connection.\footnote{Though I
sometimes use VNC to access a remote image of my Linux desktop.  See
\url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/vnc.html}.}  This limits me
to text.

\item It's very important to me that I use the same text editor for all
my computer applications---e-mail, programming, word processing,
etc.---so that I can take advantage of all the abbreviations, shortcuts
and so on which I have built up over the years.  This saves me huge
amounts of typing.  But most GUI applications, e.g. e-mail utilities,
have their own built-in text editors, so I can't use mine.

\item I find that text-based applications often have more features, are
better documented, etc.  For example, I often wish to automate certain
processes, such as uploading files to another machine, and typically
text-based programs do this better.

\end{itemize}

However, in listing my favorite applications in Section \ref{favorites}
below, I've made sure to list both text-based and GUI programs.

\subsection{My Favorite Unix/Linux Apps} 
\label{favorites}

In Ubuntu, one downloads new apps using {\bf apt-get}, which I'll use in
my examples here.  The same is true for other distros derived from
Debian.  In Fedora, use {\bf yum}.

\subsubsection{Text Editing}

I use a modern extension to the {\bf vi} editor, {\bf vim}.  This is
the version of {\bf vi} which is built in to most Linux distros.  See my
tutorial at \url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/vim.html}.   

Note:  In some Fedora distros, somehow the version of {\bf vim} that is
linked to {\bf vi} isn't configured fully correctly.  I suggest using
{\bf /usr/bin/vim} directly.

Even though {\bf vim} is text-based, it does have a GUI version too,
{\bf gvim}.  This comes with nice icons, allows you to do mouse
operations, etc.  Unfortunately, most Linux distros seem to have only
the text-based program.  To get the GUI, you can download it yourself.
In Ubuntu, do

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install vim-gnome
\end{Verbatim}

For this, you may need to edit {\bf /etc/apt/sources.list} and
uncommented the lines for Canonical's 'partner' repository

\subsubsection{Web Browsing and Java}
\label{yessometimesiuselynx}

Your Linux distro will come with a Web browser, probably Firefox, and
possibly Konqueror in addition.

I usually use Firefox.  Chrome is nice, but I really like the plugins
available for Firefox.

But believe it or not, sometimes I use the famous text-based browser,
{\bf lynx}.  In some cases, it is just plain quicker and easier.
Moreover, you can do cool tricks, such as recording keystrokes for later
playback, thus enabling one to do certain Web operations automatically.

If you use Ubuntu, your system may not be configured for Java in Web
browsing.  If so, do

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install openjdk-7-jre
sudo apt-get install icedtea-7-plugin
\end{Verbatim}


% \subsubsection{E-Mail}
% \label{email}
% 
% I use the {\bf mutt} e-mail utility. It is very flexible and
% customizable, and excellent features.  For example, it has great search
% capabilities, important if you are a heavy e-mail user.  I like its
% ability to record the fact that one has already replied to a message,
% and the fact that it allows you to save partially-written message for a
% later time when you can finish writing it.  It is text-based, not GUI,
% but the functionality it gives is what really counts, in my view.  See
% my tutorial at \url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/mutt.html}. 
% 
% Your Linux distro probably already has {\bf mutt} installed.
% 
% If you prefer a GUI-based mail utility, many nice ones exist for Linux.
% Check the Web for these, or use the Thunderbird e-mail utility in the
% Firefox Web browser suite.
 
\subsubsection{HTML Editing}

I usually use Vim, along with some macros I've written for HTML editing,
but I sometimes use Amaya, which is a full-featured GUI HTML editor,
written by the Web policy consortium.  One nice feature is that you can
actually use the embedded Web links, good for testing them.  See my
tutorial at \url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/amaya.html}. 

There are many newer and more powerful packages, such as Quanta+,
Bluefish and NVu.

\subsubsection{Compilers}

Some distros come with the GCC suite.  Ubuntu, for example, does not,
but it can be downloaded via

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install build-essential
# may need to do this separately:
sudo apt-get install libc6-dev  # C library
\end{Verbatim}

\subsubsection{Integrated Software Development (IDE)}

For programming work, I rarely use IDEs, as they are slow to load, take
up too much space, and often don't allow me to use my own text favorite editor.

I find that the {\bf vim} editor (cited above) and the {\bf ddd} GUI
interface to the {\bf gdb} debugging tool, work great together.  For
example in {\bf vim} I can type {\tt :make} (which I have aliased to
just {\tt M}, or with {\bf gvim} click on the make icon, and the source
code I'm debugging will be recompiled.  And as I've mentioned, it's
important to me that I use the same text editor for all applications,
which most IDE would not allow me to do.  I use either GDB (try CGDB!)
or DDD for my debugging tool.  See my tutorials at
\url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/vim.html} and
\url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/debug.html}. 

DDD is also usable with my favorite programming language, Python.

However, if you love IDEs, try Eclipse.  I've got a tutorial that is
more complete than most, at
\url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/eclipse.html}.   It can be
used with C, C++, Java, Perl, Python and many others.

Another system that has become quite popular is NetBeans.

For R programming, RStudio and StatET are both first-rate.

\subsubsection{Word Processing}

If you must read or write some Microsoft Office document, most Linux
distros come with LibreOffice, which can handle such files.

But many in the science and engineering world use \LaTeX\, because of
its flexibility, its beautiful output, and its outstanding ability to do
math. Did you know that \LaTeX\ is the means by which Wikipedia displays
math?

You may like Lyx, which is a great GUI interface to \LaTeX\ which is
especially good for math work.  See my tutorials at
\url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/latex.html} and
\url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/lyx.html}. 

Install by running

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install texlive
# you may also need:
sudo apt-get install texlive-fonts-recommended
\end{Verbatim}

If you wish to work with files compatible with the Microsoft Office
environment, there is a free suite of programs, OpenOffice, which
provide Microsoft compatibility.  It is packaged with most Linux
distributions.

If you would like something that quickly converts an Office file to
rough text form, say to use with e-mail attacments, try Antiword.
In Ubuntu, install via

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install antiword 
\end{Verbatim}

\subsubsection{Playing Movies, Music, Etc.}
\label{mplayer}

MPlayer is free and outstanding.  Its capabilities are amazingly broad.

The documentation is extensive, and hard to navigate, but here are a
couple of things to get you started:

{\bf Installation:}

It's easy in Ubuntu:

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install mplayer 
sudo apt-get install mencoder 
\end{Verbatim}

Otherwise, build it yourself, as follows.

One downloads the source code, {\bf MPlayer-1.0pre7try2.tar.bz2} and the
codecs, {\bf essential-20041107.tar.bz2}, from
\url{www.mplayerhq.hu/design7/dload.html}.  

Unpack the codecs file first, 

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
tar xfj essential-20041107.tar.bz2
\end{Verbatim}

This creates a new directory.  Copy the contents of that directory to
the directory {\bf /usr/local/lib/codecs} (use {\bf mkdir} to create it
if necessary).  (Note:  There may be legality issues with some codecs.
When in doubt about a particular codec, you should obtain it from a site
like Fluendo that offers it for a nominal fee,  See a discussion at
\url{http://fedoraproject.org/wiki/CodecBuddy}.

Now, unpack the source code file, and go into the directory it creates.
Then go through the usual sequence for building open-source software
from source:

\begin{Verbatim}
configure
make
make install
\end{Verbatim}

Note that if you want to use the GUI, the {\bf configure} command should
be

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
configure --enable-gui
\end{Verbatim}

After {\bf make install} is done, you will probably get a message
something like

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
 *** Download font at http://www.mplayerhq.hu/dload.html
*** for OSD/Subtitles support and extract to
/usr/local/share/mplayer/font/
*** Download skin(s) at http://www.mplayerhq.hu/dload.html
*** for GUI, and extract to /usr/local/share/mplayer/skins/
\end{Verbatim}

The fonts are needed for the subtitles (and for the GUI, if you use it).
Just the {\bf iso1} font is needed.  Download the font package, go to
the indicated directory ({\bf /usr/local/share/mplayer/font/} in the
above example), and then do the unpack operation.  This will produce a
subdirectory, e.g. {\bf font-arial-iso-8859-1}.

{\bf Viewing a video:}

To play a video or audio file, say {\bf x.avi}, type

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
mplayer x.avi
\end{Verbatim}

If you specify several files, as a playlist, it will play them all.  Hit
the Enter key if you want to skip the rest of the current file and go to
the next one.

% To play a DVD, put the disk in the tray (see Section \ref{dvd}).  Then
% type
% 
% \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% mplayer dvd://1 -dvd-device /mnt/cdrom
% \end{Verbatim}
% 
% where you will have to substitute a different mount point if it is not
% {\bf /mnt/cdrom} (try running {\bf df} or rummaging around in {\bf
% /media}).

You have the following controls:

\begin{itemize}

\item right and left arrow keys to go back or forward 10 seconds

\item down and up arrow keys to go back or forward 1 minutes

\item PgDown and PgUp keys to go back or forward 10 min

\item left- and right-bracket keys to decrease/increase speed by 10\%,
or left- and right-brace for 50\%; Backspace key to return to normal
speed

\item Space bar to pause, then . to go forward frame by frame, Space bar
to resume play

\item f to go full screen

\item q to quit

\end{itemize}

You can use {\bf mplayer}, actually {\bf mencoder}, which comes with the
package, to do format conversion, e.g. AVI to MPG, change aspect ratio, 
and even do some primitive editing.

There are many, MANY, {\Large \bf MANY} different options.

You may wish to try other players, e.g. VLC.

\subsubsection{Video Editing}

Try Kino, Cinelerra, LiVES and many others.

\subsubsection{Image Viewing, Manipulation and Drawing}

I use {\bf xpdf} to view PDF files, though Acroread for Linux is
available.  I like the fact that {\bf xpdf} allows me to copy ASCII text
from the file.  Others popular with Linux are {\bf evince}, {\bf okular}
and {\bf MuPDF}.

For collections of JPEG files and the like, I use {\bf xzgv}, {\bf
gqview} and {\bf gwenview}; for viewing a single image, I use {\bf qiv}.

Want something like Adobe Photoshop?  The GIMP program is quite
powerful, and free.  It's included with most Linux distributions.

You can use GIMP to draw, but for ``quick and dirty'' tasks, I would
suggest Dia, at \url{http://www.gnome.org/projects/dia/}.

\subsubsection{FTP}

I usually use the text-based {\bf ftp} and {\bf sftp}, the latter being
an SSH version for security.  

If you do frequent uploads/downloads to/from a particular site and wish
to automate them, another text-based program, {\bf yafc}, is excellent.

A very nice GUI program, though, is {\bf gftp}, which you can download
from the Web if your Linux system doesn't already have it.  In addition
to the GUI, this program also has some functionality which ordinary FTP
programs don't have.

\subsubsection{Statistical Analysis}

Use the statistical package that the professional statisticians use---R!

In my opinion from the point of view of someone with a ``foot in both
camps''---I'm a computer science professor who used to be a statistics
professor---the R statistical package is the best one around, whether
open source or commercial.\footnote{In some respects, it's even better
than S, the commercial product it is based on.} It is statistically
modern and correct, and it also is a general-purpose programming
language.  

I have a tutorial on R at \url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/r.html}.

Install via

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install r-base
\end{Verbatim}

\subsubsection{Video Chat}

Currently, this is an area in which many Linux distros need work.

Ubuntu comes with Ekiga, which works best if the person you're chatting
with has Ekiga too.

Skype has a Linux version, which many people use, but some have found to
have problems.

As of this writing, Google does not offer Google Talk for Linux.
However, Empathy can be used.

There are driver issues for some Webcams.  Those using the UVC protocol
are supposed to work on Linux, with the {\bf uvcvideo} driver that comes
with Linux.  But again, there may be problems.

\subsubsection{Runing Windows Applications from Within Linux}

I am simply not a Windows user, but on occasion there ia a Windows
program I need to run from within Linux.

The simple way, if it works, is the WINE Windows emulator.  Your distro
may include it (type {\tt which wine} in a terminal window to check); if
not, download it, with for example the Ubuntu command being

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
udo apt-get install wine
\end{Verbatim}

For more involved applications, you may wish to try one of the virtual
machine packages.  See
\url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/vm.html} for a brief
introduciton.


\subsection{Downloading New Software}

There is a vast wealth of free software for Linux on the Web.  Here's
how to obtain and install it.

\subsubsection{How to Find It}

These days most downloads and installs are done automatically, say with
{\bf yum} or {\bf apt-get}, as seen in Section \ref{yum} below.  That
helps you find it too.  If you want to find application Z, instead of
plugging ``Z'' into Google, plug ``yum install Z'' or ``apt-get install
Z'' so as to narrow down the volume of response.

\subsubsection{Automatic Download/Installation}
\label{yum}

In recent years, most Linux distros have made it very easy to download
and install new software.  In Fedora, for instance, one uses the {\bf
yum} command.

For example, to download the program {\bf yafc} mentioned above, one
simply types

\begin{Verbatim}
yum install yafc
\end{Verbatim}

In Ubuntu, there is the {\bf apt-get} command, which works similarly.
For instance, to download the {\bf xpdf} PDF viewer, I typed

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install xpdf
\end{Verbatim}

(See Section \ref{sudo} for an explanation of {\bf sudo}.  Ubuntu may
ask you to install from your CD-ROM, but yours may be incomplete.  If
so, comment out the first line of {\bf /etc/apt/sources.list}; this is
the line telling Ubuntu to install from the CD-ROM.)

For those who prefer GUIs, Ubuntu offers the Synaptic package manager.

With both {\bf yum} and {\bf apt-get}, one can direct where to download
from, by making the proper entries in the file {\bf
etc/apt/sources.list}.  For instance, for the R statistical package
above, {\bf apt-get} may not find it on its own, in which case we can
add a line

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
deb http://cran.stat.ucla.edu/bin/linux/ubuntu gutsy/ 
\end{Verbatim}

to {\bf etc/apt/sources.list}, telling {\bf apt-get} that here is an
alternative place it can look.  (This is for the Gutsy edition of
Ubuntu.)

By default {\bf apt-get} will try to retrieve your requested program
from your installation CD/DVD.  You can change this by commenting-out
the line in {\bf etc/apt/sources.list} that begins with

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
deb cdrom:
\end{Verbatim}

Sometimes it may not be clear which package name to use with {\bf yum}
or {\bf apt-get}.  For instance, to install the GCC compiler, C library
and so on, the command is

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install build-essential
\end{Verbatim}

How did I learn this?  I did a Web search for ``apt-get GCC.''  

To install the {\bf curses} library (and include file), do

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install libncurses5-dev
\end{Verbatim}

\subsubsection{Debian/Ubuntu .deb Files}

The Debian distro of Linux uses its own packaging for downloaded
programs, which you'll see as files whose names have a {\bf .deb}
suffix.  Ubuntu, as a derivative of Debian, uses this too.

Usually you will not need to work directly with these files, since you
will use {\bf apt-get} or Synaptic.  But if you do download such a file
directly from the Web, use {\bf gdebi} to install it; the GUI version is
{\bf gdebi-gtk}.

\subsubsection{Using RPMs}

Though the methods in Section \ref{yum} have now made RPMs less
important, you may find that the software you want comes in an RPM
package, with a {\bf .rpm} suffix in its name.  To install such a
package, type

\begin{Verbatim}

rpm -i package_file_name
\end{Verbatim}

If you later wish to remove, i.e. uninstall a package, you can use {\bf
rpm -e} (`e' stands for ``erase''). You do NOT have to have the RPM file
present to do this.

Some packages will have different versions for different C libraries.
Red Hat uses {\bf glibc}. Type

\begin{Verbatim}
ls -l /lib/libc*
\end{Verbatim}

to see which version you have.

You may find that you need some library files for a program you
download, and that you are missing those files. You can usually get
these from the Web too. If a program complains about a missing file, try
the {\bf ldd} command (e.g. {\bf ldd x} if the name of the program which
needs the library is {\bf x}); this will tell you which libraries are
needed, where they were found on your system, and which ones, if any,
were not found.

\section{Learning More About Linux}
\label{useit}

The only way to really learn Linux is to use it on a daily basis for all
your computer work---e-mail, word processing, Web work, programming, etc.

As you do this, the expertise you'll want to pick up includes:  file,
directory and mount operations; process operations; roles of system
directories ({\bf /usr}, {\bf /etc}, {\bf /dev}, {\bf /sbin} and their
various subdirectories, e.g. {\bf /usr/lib}; search paths; network
operation and utilities such as {\bf netstat}; and so on.  

Don't try to do this all at once.  Instead, take your time, and learn
these naturally, as the need arises.  As you use Linux more and more in
your daily computer application work (e-mail, word processing, etc.),
the needs will arise as you go along.

And remember, there's lots of help available if you need it.

\begin{itemize}

\item If you are running Ubuntu or one of its offshoots, the Ubuntu
Forums, \url{http://ubuntuforums.org/} is an excellent resource.

\item Linux home page, at http://www.linux.org/ Lots and lots of
information is available here.

\item \url{www.linux.com}.  Chock full of information and links.

\item Google's excellent set of links to various Linux sites,
\url{http://directory.google.com/Top/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Linux}

\item Another good set of Linux links, 
\url{http://www.linuxjunior.org/resources.shtml}

\item If you are having trouble with specific hardware in your Linux
installation, an excellent place to go for detailed information is the
Linux HOW-TO documentation. (For the same reason, if you are about to
purchase a machine and suspect that some of the hardware is nonstandard,
you can check the corresponding Linux HOW-TO to see if there are any
problems with that hardware.

The HOW-TO documents are available at many sites, such as the one at
linux.org.

\end{itemize}

There are Linux Users Groups (LUGs) in virtually every city.  You can
join if you wish, or just get to know them casually.  They are great
sources of help!  And by the way, many of them hold monthly Linux
Installfests, where you can see Linux being installed or have it
installed on your own machine.  

\section{Advanced Linux Usage}

\subsection{Dual-Boot Issues}

You may wish to change some parameters of your dual-boot process, e.g.
change the default OS.  You can do this by editing the configuration
file for your bootloader.

Most distros today use GRUB as their bootloader.  Its configuration
file is {\bf /boot/grub/menu.lst}.  By the way, note that GRUB's
notation for partitions is (drive ID, partition number), so that for
instance (hd0,1) means the second partition in the first hard drive.

\subsection{Live CDs or USB-Key Based Linux As Rescue Tools}

Among other things, Knoppix has developed a reputation as being useful
as an OS rescue/repair tool, including for Windows!  And now, most of
the live CDs or USB-key based Linux installations can be used this way.  

A common usage is to either fix broken files or at least make copies of
important user files.  It may be, for instance, that Windows is not
bootable due to corruption, but by using a Linux rescue CD/USB key,
we can access individual files.  Here is a typical pattern.  One brings
up a terminal window and then:

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo -s  # get root privileges; could try su root instead
fdisk -l  # check where the partitions are
# say /dev/sda1 is of interest
mkdir x
mount /dev/sda1 x
cd x  
# now you have those files at your disposal
\end{Verbatim}

In one case, I forgot my password on an Ubuntu netbook.  I could fix it
as root if I could boot up in Ubuntu recovery mode, but unfortunately
the GRUB bootloader was configured with a timeout value of 0 seconds,
giving me no way to choose recovery mode.  So, I booted up Linux from a
USB key (Section \ref{usb}), mounted my Ubuntu file system as above, and
then edited the GRUB startup file, {\bf /boot/grub/menu.lst}, changing
the timeout value to 5 seconds.

The preceding operations can be done by booting almost any Linux distro,
but Knoppix is nicer as it comes with two very nice utilities (both can
be obtained separately as well):

\begin{itemize}

\item {\bf testdisk}:  This does a lot of diagnostics on your hard
drive, recover lost partitions, undelete deleted files, fix boot sectors
and so on.  

\item {\bf ntfsfix}:  May be able to fix your broken NTFS partition.

\item {\bf photorec}:  Quite a program!  It bypasses your (possibly
broken) file system, and looks for files by going through your hard
drive literally bit by bit, looking for bytes that encode any of 180
known file types, e.g.  .jpg, .avi, .pdf etc.

\end{itemize}

\subsection{Troubleshooting}

One of Linux's biggest strengths is its stability.  If you are tired of
getting Windows' infamous ``blue screen of death,'' then Linux is the OS
for you.  (It is also subject to far fewer virus and other attacks than
Windows.)  So emergencies are rare, but they can happen.  Here are some
tips for such cases.

\subsubsection{Tools}

Here are some commands you can run in a terminal window that you can use
to investigate:

\begin{itemize}

\item {\bf ps}:  Tells you what processes are running.  Typically
one uses this with something like the {\bf ax} option.

\item {\bf dmesg}:  Tells you the major events that have occurred
on your machine ever since it was last booted up.

\item {\bf lsmod}:  This tells you what OS modules are installed, i.e.
device drivers and the like.

\item {\bf lpq}:  Lists the current printer queue.

\item {\bf lsusb}:  Lists what USB devices are currently plugged in.

\item {\bf ifconfig}:  Lists network interfaces.

\item {\bf iwconfig}:  Lists currently operating wireless devices.

\item {\bf iwlist}:  Lists wireless access points in range.

\item {\bf netstat}:  Lists current network connections.

\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{WiFi Networking}
\label{wifi}

The newer versions of the major distros handle WiFi configuration pretty
well without your intervention.  But if you have problems, the material
in this section may be helpful.

\subsubsection{General Information}

Below is a five-minute crash course in WiFi.  Even if you don't
understand all of it, even partial understanding may be helpful.

\begin{itemize}

\item Recall that in Unix-family operating systems, I/O devices are
represented as ``files'' in the directory {\bf /dev}.  Your WiFi device
is probably {\bf eth1} or {\bf wlan0}.  

\item Your WiFi device needs a driver.  Many, if not most, laptops use
Broadcom WiFi hardware, and in older Linux distros, they needed some
fiddling to work, but now it's much easier (see below). 

\item The names of wireless access points are called {\bf ESSID}s.  

\item If you are connected to a router or a wireless access point, your
machine is probably assigned an IP address via DHCP, rather than
statically.  An error message like ``no lease offered'' means that the
DHCP process failed.

\item DNS servers convert an ``English'' address like {\bf
www.google.com} to a numerical address like 209.85.171.103.  So your OS
needs to set up a connection to a DNS server.

\end{itemize}

\subsubsection{Network Management Tools}

If you are running the GNOME windows manager, select System $|$
Administration $|$ Network.  There is also an icon you can
click in the toolbar; it looks like two black monitors when you are not
connected, and is a set of blue bars indicating signal strength when
you are connected.  Note that left- and right-clicking gives different
results, so try both. In KDE, select System $|$ Network Device Control.  

You can activate/deactivate your netword card during a session.  In
GNOME, this is done via System $|$ Administration $|$ Network.

The network managers included with most Linux distros are rather
primitive.  An excellent alternative is WiFi Radar.  In Ubuntu, install
via

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo apt-get install wifi-radar
\end{Verbatim}

\subsubsection{Individual Linux Network Commands}

Useful commands from a terminal window include:

\begin{itemize}

\item {\bf iwlist:}
You can determine which ESSIDs are within range of you by typing the command 

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
$ sudo iwlist eth1 scanning
\end{Verbatim}

say if your wireless device is {\bf eth1}.

\item {\bf ifconfig:}
Shows information about all your network interfaces, i.e. their hardware
addresses, IP addresses and so on.  Lack of IP address on your wireless
port, e.g. {\bf wlan0} or {\bf eth1}, may indicate that DHCP has 
failed.  This command can also be used to set the IP address and 
other parameters ``manually,'' deactivate/reactive a network interface,
etc.

\item {\bf iwconfig}:  
Shows information about all your wireless connections.

Also can be used by you to specify which access point you wish to use.

For example, to select a particular wireless access point named
X, type

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo iwconfig wlan0 essid "X"
\end{Verbatim}

(assuming {\bf wlan0} is your wireless interface).

\item {\bf dmesg:}
Shows a record of your last bootup.  This may show error messages
regarding your WiFi card.  It's pretty long, so either run it through
{\bf more}, i.e. run

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
dmesg | more
\end{Verbatim}

or save it to a file, say {\bf dmesg.out}, and then explore the file at
your leisure with a text editor.

\item {\bf route:}
Displays the current packet routing table.

\item {ethtool:}
Running 

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
ethtool eth0
\end{Verbatim}

will give you information about your Ethernet link, e.g. link speed.
To get statistics on recent usage, run

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
ethtool --statistics eth0 
\end{Verbatim}

\end{itemize}

Some of these must be used with root privilege.  For example, running

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
iwlist eth1 scanning
\end{Verbatim}

may produce no access points, while

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
sudo iwlist eth1 scanning
\end{Verbatim}

will show you all of them.

The file {\bf /etc/resolv.conf} lists the IP addresses of the DNS
servers.  You can add more {\bf nameserver} lines if you know of some,
say from your ISP (of for that matter, other ISPs).

\subsubsection{If You Have a Problem}

These days, Linux generally does well with WiFi, and it might work for
you ``right out of the box,'' with no configuration on your part.  If
not, this section is for you.

Some wireless network cards typically sold with PCs today do not have
direct Linux drivers available.  A common example is the Broadcom
BCM43XX series.  However, you can still operate as usual after some
preparation, as explained below.

\textbf{Ubuntu:  BCM43XX Series}

Ubuntu handles Broadcom cards well, as long as you have Linux kernel
2.6.15 or newer.  (Run {\bf dmesg} if you want to check this.) You
simply need to take the following action once:  

First establish an Ethernet connection to the Internet, to enable
download.  For example, if you have a router at home, even a wireless
one, connect your machine directly to the router with an Ethernet cable.

Then Select System $|$ Administration $|$ Hardware Devices (the last
might be labeled Additional Drivers).  It will ask you if you want to
download the Broadcom firmware, so say yes.  Check the Enable box for
Firmware for Broadcom 43 Wireless Driver.  You will be asked whether you
want the firmware to be downloaded from the net; say yes.  Then check
Enabled after the download.

\textbf{Know Your WiFi Card}

You first need to determine which wireless card you have.  On the laptop
I use now, I determined this by running {\bf dmesg} and {\bf lspci}
under Linux.  Sure enough, it turned out to be a Broadcom BCM43XX series
card.

% I then obtained the driver files for my Broadcom wireless card.  Windows
% said that it was using {\bf bcmwl5.sys} for this card.  I got it from my
% Windows partition, which on my machine is at
% 
% \begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
% c:\windows\system32\drivers\bcmwl5.sys 
% \end{Verbatim}
% 
% (As noted in Section \ref{access}, this may not be easy to do directly.
% If you have trouble, boot Windows and copy the file to a USB key, then
% go back to Linux and read from the key.)  Or, I could have downloaded it
% from the Web.

\textbf{Other Cards/Kernels}

For other cards, go to the {\bf ndiswrapper} home
page, \url{http://ndiswrapper.sourceforge.net/}.  The program {\bf
ndiswrapper} allows Linux to use Windows drivers.

\subsubsection{A Program Freezes}

If an application program freezes up and you invoked it from the command
line within a shell, you can in most cases kill it by hitting Ctrl-c in
the terminal window from which invoked it.  If this doesn't work, run
the ``processes'' command by typing

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
ps ax
\end{Verbatim}

in another terminal window, and noting the process number of your
program.  Say for concreteness that that number is 2398.  Then type

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
kill -9 2398
\end{Verbatim}

to kill the program.

If you have a program named, say, {\bf xyz}, the command

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
pkill -9 xyz
\end{Verbatim}

kills all running instances of the program.

\subsubsection{Screen Freezes}
What if your entire screen freezes up?  Again, this should be quite
rare, but it is possible.  I recommend the following remedies, in order:

\begin{itemize}

\item \item In Gnome hit Alt F2, which will bring up a little window in
which you can run a command, say {\bf pkill} as above.  

\item In Gnome, hit Ctrl Alt T, which will create a new terminal window,
from which you can kill the offending program.

\item Try going to another screen!  Linux allows you to switch among
multiple screens.  In Gnome, for instance, You can switch to the second
screen from the first via Ctrl Alt Right, and go back via Ctl Alt Left.
Then open a terminal window in the new screen, find the process number
of the program and kill the program, as described above.

\item In Gnome, try hitting Ctrl Alt Del).  This should cause an exit
from Linux's X11 windowing system but not an exit from Linux itself.
You would then get an opportunity to log in again.

\end{itemize}

Try NOT to simply poweroff the machine, as that may do damage to your files.
It may not be permanent damage, as the OS will try to fix the problems
when you next reboot, but don't just pull the plug unless you have no
other recourse.

\subsection{Accessing Your Windows Files from Linux}  
\label{access}

At this point, most Linux distributions, except Fedora/Red Hat, give you
access (at least read access) to your Windows partition from Linux.  For
some of them, they may do this automatically, in which case your Windows
partition, say {\bf /dev/hda1} should be visible in the file {\bf
/etc/fstab}.  If not, mount it yourself:  

\begin{Verbatim}[fontsize=\relsize{-2}]
mkdir /dosc
mount /dev/hda1 /dosc
cd /dosc
\end{Verbatim}

You should now see your Windows files, and should be able to access them
on at least a read basis.

For more information, including concerning write access, ss the
Linux-NTFS Project, \url{http://www.linux-ntfs.org/}.

% First, determine the exact kernel your Linux system has, say by running
% the {\bf dmesg} command, mentioned in the first few lines of the output.
% Then go to the above Web page, click on your distribution, say Fedora 3,
% and download the RPM with the same kernel number.  Then follow the
% directions given at the Web page, running {\bf rpm} to install the
% Linux-NTFS package, and then running {\bf modprobe} and {\bf mount}.  
% 
% All of that is the first time.  On subsequent when you wish to access
% your Windows partition, you need run only the {\bf mount}.

% \subsection{If You Wish to Remove Linux}
% 
% If you wish to remove Linux from your machine, first remove LILO/GRUB as
% follows.  Boot from your the Windows recovery CD that came with your
% machine.  (Make sure you have the boot order set for your machine so
% that it tries to boot from CD or DVD before a hard drive.)
% When asked whether you want setup or recovery, hit R for the
% latter.  Choose whichever disk your Windows system is on, probably C:.
% Change directories to WINDOWS if you are not already there, and issue
% the FIXMBR command.  It will warn you that you will be restoring the
% Master Boot Record (MBR), which is what you want.  Then hit EXIT to
% finish, and reboot without the CD.
% 
% Subsequently Windows will boot up as it did before you installed
% Linux.  
% 
% Finally, use GParted to recover the former Linux space into your Windows
% partitions.  Typically, this means deleting your Linux partitions (the
% ones that are not of type FAT32 or NTFS), and then expanding your NTFS
% partition.  Don't forget that the next time you boot Windows, it will
% ask you if you want a disk check, which you should definitely answer Yes
% to.

\appendix

\section{What Is Linux?}
\label{whatislinux}

Linux is a form of the Unix operating system.  Though originally Unix
was used mainly by engineers and scientists and thus was not very
familiar to the general public, a lot of what you take for granted on
computer systems today began in Unix.  A notable example is the
Internet---the first major operating system to implement the TCP/IP
protocol at the heart of the Internet was Unix, and that led to the
general acceptance of the protocol.  The Apple Macintosh operating
system is based on a form of Unix, and the Android system is based on
Linux.

In the early 1990s, computer science student Linus Torvalds decided to
write his own version of Unix, which he called Linux.  Other
``homegrown'' versions of Unix had been written, such as MINIX, but what
distinguished Linux was the scale of worldwide participation involved.
Torvalds innocently put a message on the Internet asking if anyone
wanted to help, and he got a torrent of responses.

There are a several reasons why Linux is mainstream today.  First, it
became known as a very reliable, stable operating system, with one
result being that Linux has become a major platform for large corporate
Web servers.  Another reason is that it is free, as is the vast majority
of the software associated with it developed elsewhere.  Many companies
have found that it is cheaper to run Linux on their PCs, both for this
reason and because of reduced maintenance costs.

There are several good reasons for you to use Linux:

\begin{itemize}

\item As mentioned, Linux is becoming one of the ``hottest'' software
systems. Virtually all of the major companies are promoting it, and as
mentioned Linux is a leading corporate choice for Web servers.  Linux is
the main operating system used at \raisebox{-0.08in}{
\includegraphics[width=0.6in]{Google.jpg}}, and in fact they developed
their own version of Linux, Goobuntu (a play on Ubuntu, one of the most
popular versions of Linux).

\item Linux is also starting to make inroads in large desktop markets,
such as businesses, schools and so on, due to its high reliability, far
lower rate of infection by viruses compared to Windows, and its low
cost.

\item The Linux community shares.  That means that people online are
much more willing to help you, and more open
source software is available.

\end{itemize}

If you are a university computer science student, there are some very
important additional advantages: 

\begin{itemize}

\item Many CS courses make specific use of Unix, and thus their work
cannot be done on Windows platforms. Since it is a full Unix system,
Linux allows students to do their homework in the comfort of their own
homes. If you are new to Unix, click here for my Unix tutorial Web page
at \url{http://heather.cs.ucdavis.edu/~matloff/unix.html}, which will
introduce you to Unix file and directory commands, and so on.

\item In installing and using Linux, students learn many practical
things about computers which they do not learn in coursework. This
practical experience can also help you in job interviews, both for
permanent jobs after graduation and for summer jobs and
internships/co-ops during your college years. Even if the job you
interview for does not involve Linux, you will definitely impress the
interviewer if, for example, you discuss various things you have done to
use and customize your Linux system.

\end{itemize}

\section{What Is Partitioning?}
\label{whatispart} 

It is probably not necessary for you to know the material here, and it
is rather detailed, but you may find it useful at some point.  I do
recommend that you take a few minutes and read this section.

A hard drive (not just for Linux) will consist of one or more {\it
partitions}.  A partition is a set of contiguous space (sequential
blocks) on the disk, and is treated as an independent disk.  

So, assuming you want your system to include both Windows and Linux
(termed a {\it dual boot} situation, since you can boot either system),
you will need at least one partition for Windows and one (actually two)
for Linux.

It's important to understand how the naming works: In Linux systems, all
I/O devices are treated as ``files.''  If your first hard drive is of
the IDE type, the entire drive is probably called {\bf /dev/hda}, i.e.
the ``file'' {\bf hda} within the directory {\bf /dev}.  In the case of
SATA-type hard drives, the notation is {\bf /dev/sda} etc.

Your first CD-ROM/DVD drive may be {\bf /dev/hdc} (your third ``hard
drive''), your first USB port may be {\bf /dev/sdf1} and so on.

Partitions within, say, {\bf /dev/hda}, are called {\bf /dev/hda1}, {\bf
/dev/hda2} and so on.  Your original Windows single partition was
probably {\bf /dev/hda1} or {\bf /dev/sda1}.  

Within a partition you'll have some type of file system.  The disk
consists simply of a long stream of bytes, with no structure, so the OS
needs to have a way of organizing them into files, recording where in
that stream each file has its bytes.  But you don't need to know the
details.  Windows XP and Vista use the {\bf NTFS} file system.  The
standard Linux file system is {\bf ext2} (number 0x83, sometimes called
{\it Linux native}), or possibly {\bf ext3}, for your main Linux
partition and of type {\bf swap} for your swap partition (number 0x82,
used for temporary storage during the time the OS is running).

PCs were originally designed to have up to four ``real'' partitions,
called {\it primary} partitions.  After people found that to be too
constraining, {\it logical} or {\it extended} partitions were invented.
You should install Linux in a primary partition, for recovery reasons,
but it is not necessary.

\subsection{Partitioning Using GParted}
\label{gparted}

Today most distros will invoke a partitioning program to do your
partitioning.  This could be the famous GParted program, or one that the
authors of your distro wrote themselves.

You can use GParted on your own by downloading and booting a GParted
live CD (or USB key), but I'll assume here that your Linux installation
program invokes either GParted or another program written specifically
for your distro.

Since every distro will handle this a bit differently, what I will do
here is just give you an understanding of what operations need to be
done, with the specific mouse clicks needed varying from one distro to
another.

I'll assume that you want your Windows and Linux systems to coexist on
the same hard drive.  So when your distro's installer program asks you
whether you want to use the entire disk, be sure to say no!  Of course,
if you do want to erase Windows, or if you are installing Linux on a
separate drive from Windows, you can go ahead and use the whole drive.

% When I installed Ubuntu in place of my existing Fedora system, I chose
% manual partitioning.  Ubuntu said my swap space wasn't large enough, so
% I told Ubuntu to remove my Fedora partitions, and then to create new
% root and swap partitions from the freed space.  I chose the {\bf ext3} 
% filesystem type for the root partition and specified that it should be
% mounted at {\bf /}.

Here are the main steps in GParted, roughly stated (you may see some
variation):

\begin{itemize}

\item Select the disk you wish to repartition.  If you have only one
disk, it will be something like {\bf /dev/hda}.  (See Section
\ref{whatispart}.)

\item Select the partition where Windows resides.  This will typically
cover the entire disk, and will almost certainly be of file system type
NTFS.  I'll assume that here.

\item Decide how much space you want to remove from the Windows
partition in order to make a partition for Linux.

\item Now resize, in this case shrink, the Windows partition.  The
partioner will ask you how much room to make.

\item Adjust the partition size according to your desired value.

\item You'll need to make the main Linux partition {\bf primary}, of
type {\bf ext2} or {\bf ext3}, and set to be bootable.

\item You'll need a smaller partition of type {\bf linux-swap}.  This is
not used for files, but rather as ``scratch space'' by the
OS, for virtual memory and for storage when your machine is in hibernate
mode.

\item You'll then have to commit, i.e. save, the changes to the
partitions.  This might take a few minutes, so be patient.

\item The next time you boot Windows, you will be asked if you want a
disk consistency check.  Definitely say yes.

\end{itemize}

% \section{How to Use wvdial}
% \label{wvdial}
% 
% The {\bf wvdial} program does a great job of automating the setup of a PPP
% connection to the Internet.  It is already there in your Red Hat
% distribution.
% 
% Create a configuration file by typing
% 
% \begin{verbatim}
% 
% wvdialconf /etc/wvdial.conf
% \end{verbatim}
% 
% or by simply modifying the example in the {\bf wvdial} man page.
% 
% You are now ready to try it out! Just type
% 
% \begin{verbatim}
% 
% wvdial &
% \end{verbatim}
% 
% The program should dial out for you, sense when the user and password
% prompts come from your ISP, automatically send them, and then start {\bf
% pppd}.  You now can run {\bf telnet}, {\bf netscape} or whatever.
% 
% To quit your PPP connection, first bring {\bf wvdial} back to the foreground
% by typing ``fg", and then hit ctrl-c to kill it.
% 
% (Do not use the Unix {\bf kill} command for this; ctrl-c gives {\bf wvdial} a
% chance to end gracefully. Otherwise, the OS kernel's routing table
% will not revert to its original setting, and if you use {\bf wvdial} again
% without rebooting, {\bf wvdial} won't work properly. If you are curious
% about this, try running the {\bf route} command before, during and after
% running {\bf wvdial}. 
% 
% \section{Making a Linux Rescue Disk}
% 
% If you ever have a disk crash or similar problem, you'll be thankful
% that you had previously made a Linux rescue disk.  If you did nto do so
% during your Linux install process, put a floppy diskette into the drive
% and run the {\bf mkbootdisk} command.
% 
% \section{Dial-Up Networking from Linux}
% 
% Important note: Beware of ``Winmodems,'' which will not work with Linux.
% See our section on this elsewhere in this document, titled
% ``Winmodems.''
% 
% To use your modem (if not a Winmodem), first find out which COM port
% your modem is on. (See the material above on how to determine your
% hardware properties in Windows.) Then run the Linux program {\bf
% modemtool}.
% 
% Then edit the file {\bf /etc/resolv.conf} (create it if it is not there),
% adding the line
% 
% \begin{verbatim}
% nameserver x.x.x.x
% \end{verbatim}
% 
% to it, where x.x.x.x is the DNS address used by your Internet service
% provider. (You can have up to three such lines.)
% 
% I strongly recommend using {\bf wvdial}, It probably is already included in
% your Linux system, but if not, obtain it from
% http://www.worldvisions.ca/wvdial/. 
% 
% You need to create the {\bf wvdial} startup file /etc/wvdial.conf.  You
% could do this simply by using the sample in the man page as a model.
% (Red Hat's {\bf wvdial} configuration tool is rp3; you may wish to run
% this instead.) Or you can use {\bf wvdial}'s own configuration tool; see
% Appendix \ref{wvdial} for details.


 
\end{document} 

